Time Management in the Workplace Research Paper

Time Management in the Workplace - Research Paper Example Time management can be applied to your personal life in order to reduce stress and improve productivity (Clinic). A lot of people waste a lot of time during their daily routine. Identifying areas to streamline your daily habits can help people gain a lot of valuable time. For instance if a person stays in the shower one hour everyday, then this individual could reduce his bathing time to save water and cut time. A different individual may spend over three hours a day talking on the phone. Increase exposure to cellular phones may cause cancer (Cancer). The person would benefit from the application of time management to reduce phone usage. The time spend away from the phone can help this person enjoy more quality time with his family. . The managers of organizations can greatly benefit from the use of time management. Since managers are responsible for the performance of their employees it is in their best interest for their subordinates to use time efficiently at work. Managers can in fluence the way people do their jobs at work. The implementation of a new process can allow a worker to produce more units during a shift. Managers can also help their workers by authorizing training and development to increase the skills and capabilities of the staff. ... Time can be better managed by executives when they are organized and perform proper planning. Managers must forecast the work labor hours required to produce the demand for its products and services. Increasing labor efficiency by reducing waste can enhance the production of a company. Time management can benefit the work output of all types of employees independent of their position. The janitor can become more efficient at his job by finding ways to reduce the time to perform tasks. Salesmen can benefit from the use of multi-tasking tools in order to reduce the time of performing different tasks in their daily routine. Barbers can increased their productivity by shortening the time it takes to finish a hair cut and by socializing less with the clients and other employees during labor hours. The use of technology can be applied in the workplace to improve the time management of the enterprise. A simple technology that can save time in administrative work is to purchase an electronic card puncher. Instead of using a time card the employees can check in by putting a pin number in the machine. The electronic data can save accountants and HR people a lot of work in determining the hours worked by the employees to prepare the payroll. Another technology that can be used to improve the productivity of businesspeople when working outside the office is smartphones. Smartphones such as the Iphone 5 have the capability of connecting to the internet which enables workers to interchange data, information, and to instantly communicate with each other saving valuable time. The proliferation of cellular technology has improved communication worldwide. There are approximately 5.9 billion cellular subscriptions worldwide (Plunkettresearchonline). Capital

International Business. Multinational Enterprises Case Study

IBM as a Multinational Enterprises - Case Study Example IBM is one of the only nine companies in the Fortune 500 companies to be considered global. A company's recognition as being global is only measured by the percentage of their revenue from different markets. The three triad major world markets: North America, Europe, and Asia, are considered when companies are measured. According to the rules for a company to be called global, the revenue from each of the three major markets must be greater than 20% of the total revenue of the company (2006). In the case of IBM, it passed the test since IBM's revenue from all the three major world markets exceeds 20% of the total revenue. The company gets 42.7% of its revenue from North and South America, 32.7% from Europe, and 21.6% from Asia. Other big companies can be considered multinational enterprises, but not global companies. The number of countries IBM operates in, along with the vast availability of its products throughout the world is sufficient to conclude that IBM has a global reach. IBM interests the masses of other countries, and that is why it is the largest firm in its industry. IBM started to expand beyond national borders through the merger of its Canadian predecessors and establishing and maintaining a special relationship with its customers. According to the case presented, IBM expanded with speed and commitment into many different markets of the world. Contract manufacturing is outsourcing manufacturing tasks to other firms. In IBM's case, the company uses contract manufacturing to manufacture a lot of its products in different parts of the world. IBM's strategy is to remain a global company, and contract manufacturing fits in perfectly in IBM. Contract manufacturing allows the company to expand faster than if the company would manufacture everything directly from the host country. Furthermore, it saves a lot of money and time for the company because production facilities are not to be purchased, as it would be the case if IBM decides to manufacture them. It also involves getting the most out of the workforce. Local firms would know more about how to utilize their resources in the best possible way, and hence, local firms would a better job at managing local resources. Moreover, consumer tastes and demands differ in each country, so it is beneficial to use the knowledge of contractors about the home market. The contractors know mor e about the market for technological products in the home market. Furthermore, with specific assistance from IBM, the local firms can provide an IBM product with specific customization tailoring to the local population. Part of the reason for IBM's success in other countries is contract manufacturing. IBM would have to deal with a lot of issues such as location, availability of human resources and technology, training, market research, and government rules and regulations etc. To better minimize the risk of getting others to do the company's work, IBM has created six research centers across six countries to ensure that these centers conduct research in their region.

Pro-Natal Policies Analysis

Pro-Natal Policies Analysis Pro-Natal Policies in Norway Background Norway’s average fertility rate over the past 10 years is about 1.9, compared to Singapore’s average of 1.25 over the same period (The World Bank, 2014). Furthermore, 5 out of 6 women between the ages of 30-39 still remain employed (BBC News, 2006). Norway is Scadinavia’s richest country, enjoying an oil boom which started 40 years ago (Mohsin, 2014). Most of its revenues are channelled into a wealth fund that has accumulated to $890 billion, or about $170,000 per person. These oil revenues allow for large budget surpluses, protect government schemes from recessions, and provide resources for the future (Rindfuss et al.). The Nordic welfare states have a long-running tradition of implementing policies directed at the family (Rà ¸nsen, 2004). However, these policies are not for pro-natalist reasons, but rather based on their ideas of gender equality and a general concern for the well-being of families and their children. Also, Norwegian society holds the philosophy that children are an essential part of society (Andersen, 2012). Policies Child Benefit The child benefit is paid to all families with children below the age of 18 to cover their costs of having children (Ministry of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion). It is paid per child from the month after the child’s birth till the month before the child turns 18. In 2012, the child benefit was â‚ ¬ 119 per month. A single provider is entitled to an additional child benefit. Parental Leave Benefit Families receive the parental leave benefit upon the birth of a child, a scheme that was started way back in 1956 (BBC, 2014; Ministry of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion, 2014). For most families, this continues until the child is about a year old. The goal of the parental leave benefit is to make it financially feasible for one parent to care for the child at home during its first year, as well as to facilitate equality in parenting. A period of 47 weeks with parental leave benefits, or 57 weeks with reduced benefits (80% of pay) is shared between the parents to provide income for the first year of the child (Anderson, 2012; Ministry of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion, 2014). After the first year, the child is entitled to a place in a day-care centre and/or a cash benefit. Mothers have the right to parental leave benefits if they have worked for at least 6 out of the last 10 months (Ministry of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion). Mothers who do not fulfill this requirement have entitlement to a lump sum maternity grant. In 2011, this grant was â‚ ¬ 4310 per child. The three weeks before and six weeks after birth have to be taken by the mother as part of the parental leave benefit period. The father also has to fulfil a minimum quota of leave (Ministry of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion, 2014; BBC News, 2014), with the Norwegian government has planning to lengthen this by one more week. The rest of the leave period can be freely shared between both parents. When the father takes any leave outside of his quota, he has to take up primary care of the child. A goal of this is to allow for fathers to spend more time alone with the child during the toddler stage. Since the paid leave is financed by taxes, employers do not lose out when employees use their parental leave (BBC News, 2014). Funding for the parental leave benefits and lump sum maternity grants amount to about â‚ ¬ 1.83 billion (2011) (Ministry of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion). More than 80% of mothers and 70% of fathers are entitled to parental leave benefits. Cash Benefit For one and two year olds, parents can choose between a place in a day-care centre or receive a cash benefit (Ministry of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion). They can also choose to combine a reduced rate cash benefit with reduced time in a day-care centre. Only children who are one year of age can receive the cash benefit and are entitled to a maximum benefit period of 11 months. For cash benefits, only full or half cash-benefits can be chosen. The cash benefit is approximately â‚ ¬ 404 per month (2011), is non-taxable, and is paid without income or means-testing. Day-care A child is entitled to a place at a day-care centre as soon as the child turns one-year old (Andersen, 2012). Both public and private day-care centres are heavily subsidised by the state, and parents are means-tested and are charged accordingly at different rates. Fees are capped at â‚ ¬308 per month. This is in contrast to an average of â‚ ¬144 a week in Ireland. Furthermore, the childcare system in Norway is highly regulated and the standard of care is known to be of very high quality. Effectiveness A study by Lappegà ¥rd (2010) found that policies which promote involvement of fathers in childcare and gender equality such as paternal leave are positively associated with second births, while policies which grant general support for the family such as childcare cash benefits are positively related with third births. Another study conducted by Zuvander, Lappegà ¥rd and Andersson (2010) found a positive association between fathers’ parental leave use and continued childbearing in Norway for one-child and two-child couples. For families with two children, an extended period of leave for the mother was positively associated with the birth of a third-child. Furthermore, using data from Norway, Rindfuss et al. (2007) showed that the greater availability of child-care centers leads to a younger age for the first birth, and that high quality and affordable child-care leads to increased child-bearing. However, Rà ¸nsen, a Norwegian statistician, claimed that implementing generous family policies do not guarantee high fertility (BBC News, 2014). Sweden is cited as an example, whereby birth rates have not improved even though family policies were as generous as in Norway. Sweden went through a sharp increase in unemployment, after which the fertility rate fell from 2.1 in 1992 to 1.5 in 1997. It is believed that it is Norway’s combination of steady economic growth and family policies that has kept birth rates high, since people have a tendency to postpone having children during periods of economic insecurity. Pro-Natal Policies in France Background France has the second highest fertility rate in Europe, ranked after Ireland (France Diplomatie, 2013). In 2012, the fertility rate was 2.01, close to the replacement rate of 2.1. The birth rate has been increasing since 1995, and this trend has often been linked with many family policies during that period (Laroque and Salanià ©, 2008). In addition, France still maintains a high rate of female employment: 85% of women are employed (France Diplomatie, 2013). In France, fulfilment comes about from a rewarding family and social life (France Diplomatie, 2013). A 2011 study found that close to 60% of young French people were keen to start a family and have children. This figure was the highest rate in Europe. Policies Generous Monetary Benefits Women under maternity leave can receive full salary for 16 weeks, and are eligible to 26 weeks if the child is their third, and up to 34 weeks in the case of multiple births (European Union, 2014). Fathers are granted 11 consecutive days of paternity leave with full salary. Furthermore, families are entitled to monthly parental allowance if one of the two parents stops working or reduces his/her working hours to care for a child under three years of age. In addition, parents receive a family allowance after their second dependent child under 20 years of age (European Union, 2014). This monthly amount depends on the number of dependent children. After the third child, if the other two children are under 21 years, families are entitled to further family support amounting to â‚ ¬ 167.34. This is subject to means-testing Families can also receive assistance for their first child (European Union, 2014). For example, they can be paid a premium of â‚ ¬923.08 for a birth or â‚ ¬1846.15 for an adoption; a monthly allowance to assist parents with raising and education costs for three years (â‚ ¬ 184.62); family support allowance to help raise a child in the absence of help from one or both parents (ranging from â‚ ¬ 90.40 to â‚ ¬ 120.54), and a back-to-school allowance that is means-tested to help families with their children’s schooling costs (â‚ ¬ 360.47 for 6 to 10 year olds, â‚ ¬ 380.36 for 11 to 14 year olds, â‚ ¬ 393.54 for 15 to 18 year olds) Tax concessions for big families Large benefits stand to enjoy substantial tax concessions, whereby families with at least three children benefit the most (European Union, 2014). The French tax system is such that tax units are households, not individuals. Each household amounts to a number of shares determined by marital status and the number of children. Married couples are entitled to two shares, a further half-share for the first two children, and an additional one share per child after the third child. Given that taxable income is calculated as the total household income divided by the number of shares in a household, large families get to enjoy a significant reduction in taxes. Wide range of childcare services France has a comprehensive childcare and pre-school system that allows parents to continue working (European Union, 2014). Nurseries are run by businesses, the local government, or parent associations. The fees for most nurseries are means-tested. Parents can also choose to hire a licensed childminder who can look after up to 4 children at his/her home. Also, pre-school in France is free. In addition, parents with children under the age of six can make use of after-school centres, which are usually subsidised by the Familiy Allowance Fund. Effectiveness Laroque and Salanià © (2008) found a notable impact of financial incentives on fertility especially for the first and third child. Also, according to Letablier (2008), the main cause for France’s impressive fertility rate is likely due to the of support provided to parents to reduce the costs of children and in reconciling work and family life for mothers so that they can work and care for their children. The latter supports findings from a recent OECD report which found that the most effective policies to boost birth rates are the ones that help women to reconcile career and family. According to the report, government expenditure to provide childcare to help families improve work-life balance is more effective in raising fertility rates than giving money to families to subsidise births (Silverman, 2011). What Can We Learn? How Do They Suit Their Respective Economies (welfare/open economy?) France Financial incentives, though helpful in increasing fertility to a certain extent, are not as effective as helping women to reconcile work and family through the availability of childcare services and parental leave programs. Concessions on taxation, nonetheless, may be a useful tool in raising birth rates. To boost fertility, government policy should utilise a wide variety of instruments and measures to create a conducive environment for child-bearing. McDonald (2007) lends support to this by advocating for comprehensive policies over piecemeal policies, as the real importance of a single policy lies not in its econometric impact, but in how it adds to the way young people perceive their society’s support for those who have children. It is the symbolic meanings of the policies that count most. Norway Funding effective pro-natal policies may require substantial government spending, which may only be affordable to well-endowed and wealthy countries without the possibility of a deficit. Economic stability may also be a pre-condition for high and steady birth rates. Policies that advocate gender equality in parenting may be effective in raising birth rate. Granting more paternal leave to fathers can be helpful, as well as setting a minimum quota of leave to encourage fathers to spend more time caring for the child. Also, the availability of good quality and affordable child-care services can help boost fertility.

Essay --

ISO 9000 standards can be defined as a series of international set standards used by companies to perfect on their quality. These standards were enacted by experts derived from different parts of the world. ISO 9000 Series Standards acts as guideline how companies are mandated to ensure their suppliers have accurate and appropriate quality systems. Basically, ISO 9000 Series Standards was initially developed with support from major credible international bodies obligated to ensure standardization in both quality management and assurance in all companies. ISO 9000 standards were initiated, developed and maintained by a credible organization known as International Organization for Standardization (ISO). These standards have been adapted by many countries globally approximated to be over 90 countries. Essentially, these standards were established with purpose of promoting international trade between different counties which outlines a set of requirements which should be adhered to by all stakeholders. As a matter of fact, ISO 9000 Series Standards is one of the major products used many companies worldwide. ISO 9000 Series Standards was first enacted and published in the year 1987. The Standards was developed with help of selected technical committee focusing more on issues concerning quality. After its publication, the standards have undergone several amendments and changes as evidenced by a major revision done in 2000. Quality is essential on every products and services offered by every company. Quality production being one major area of concern cites the reason why it is vital for companies to observe and maintain ISO 9000 Series Standards. Many companies worldwide are striving hard to ensure their products meets th... ... The standards were established in 1987, by a selected technical committee from different corners of the world. These standards were initiated, developed and maintained by a credible organization known as International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Currently, many companies in over 90 countries have adopted these standards. These Standards acts as guideline how companies mandated to ensure that their suppliers have accurate and appropriate quality systems. ISO 9000 standards are vital to every company or small businesses. They play huge roles in ensuring quality of products is not at all compromised in order to guarantee customers satisfaction. As observed despite many advantages allied with ISO 9000, it has its own disadvantages. These include the involved cost, consumers a lot of time, drawbacks for the employees and emphasizes on heavy documentation.

Paper Camp

DRUG ADDICTION AS A PROBLEM-DETERMINED SYSTEM: A CASE STUDY Introduction Drug addiction seems to be a rapidly growing societal problem that leaves many lives destroyed in its wake. Families are ripped apart by its devastating impact, and countless drug addicts are unable to free themselves from the powerful grip of drug addiction and consequently pay with their lives. According to Edmonds and Wilcocks (1995), drug addiction is a very real problem in South Africa. It affects people from all walks of life and can no longer be considered a localised problem.Jackson, Usher and O’Brien (2006) found that the experience of having a family member that is addicted to drugs, especially a child, had a profound effect on other members of the immediate family as well as on the family relationships. Butler and Bauld (2005) highlighted the devastation parents experienced in learning that their child was addicted to drugs and the subsequent impact that this had on their lives. Grohsman (2007) argues that the impact of drug addiction goes beyond the individual and the family, as the ripples thereof can also be felt in the larger community and economy.Therefore, it seems that parents, families, teachers, community and church leaders, healthcare professionals, law enforcement agencies, government and society at large, have a tremendous task ahead in the prevention and treatment of drug abuse throughout the country. Just like a tree bears fruit when conditions are optimal for such an occurrence to take place, the problem of drug addiction is also assumed to develop within the context of a system of relatedness that put forth just the right ingredients for its emergence.Therefore, as the 3 researcher, I set out to explore the specific interactions between role players that created a suitable environment for the problem of drug addiction to emerge. As human beings, we are social creatures and thus our life experiences are inevitably tied up in the experiences of others. Any a ttempt to understand a particular individual has to include those that form part of that individual’s ecology of living Statement of the problem ? Drop in attendance and performance at work or school. Engaging in secretive or suspicious behaviors. ? Sudden change in friends, favorite hangouts, and hobbies. ? Unexplained change in personality or attitude. ? Sudden mood swings, irritability, or angry outbursts. ? Periods of unusual hyperactivity, agitation, or giddiness. ? To built up a drug tolerance ? take drugs to avoid or relieve withdrawal symptoms. ? lost control over your drug use ? life revolves around drug use ? abandoned activities you used to enjoy,  . continue to use drugs, despite knowing it’s hurting you. Significance of the study The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of how a problemdetermined system developed around a case of drug addiction within the context of a system of relatedness. The epistemological framework informing this qualitative study was constructivism. The six participants who took part in the study represent the most prominent role players in the particular context of living.The individual battling with drug addiction, his parents, older sister, maternal grandmother and maternal aunt were interviewed. The methods of data collection employed were semi-structured interviews, a chronological event chart, genograms, and an eco-map. The interviews were interpreted using the hermeneutic approach. The different themes that emerged from each participant’s story were integrated in relation to each other and with respect to the collaborative sources of data.The most dominant themes extracted within this study are the initial reactions to Andrew’s drug addiction, life changes experienced due to Andrew’s drug addiction, support, as well as the meanings attributed to Andrew’s drug addiction. Further researcher into problem-determined systems in different cultures is recommende d. To Students: Firstly, the one reason of drug abuse among university students is peer pressure, particularly from the social influences among friends, school, and the community.If their social main group is using drugs, it can risk for teens because they are the juncture age that really easy to be persuaded. For example, most of university students got a lot of money from their parents and a lot of students left home and have a freedom to stay in dormitory by themselves, these can cause teenagers to try drugs just to fit in the social norms, they might do it to impress their buddies to be considered â€Å"cool† as part of being in the group and gain acceptance by friends.To Everybody:  as we now, today this entire staff called drug, affect mostly young people and it is more obvious in places where there are many gathered, like university because of the easiness of finding drugs in university, whenever they want, it is really easy for them to buy it because of weak law   enforcement in our country. In short, University students use drug because peer pressure, faulty function of the family, to relive their depression and the  weak law  enforcement. I think it is a big problem so much and we should do anything to protect them from drug.They need to be more educated about drug abuse and have a stopping drug campaign. Moreover, the most important that can help is a family. Strong family relationship, interest in your teens, talking with reasons can prevent drug use Limitations of the Study Throughout the entire process of completing this study, the following limitations were found: The focus of this study was only directed on the experiences of one particular family in one specific culture. This narrow scope might be considered a limitation to this study, as it only explored how a single Caucasian family ascribed meaning to their particular experience of rug addiction. However, the main reasoning or driving force of this study was not to generalise the experiences of a particular family as being similar or dissimilar to the experiences of other families. Therefore, the qualitative orientation of this study allowed me as the researcher to focus my attention solely on the manner in which one family conceptualised their experiences of drug addiction. As was pointed out, Terre Blanche et al. (2006) explain that a qualitative approach allows the researcher to study selected issues in depth, openness and etail as it involves the studying of real-life situations as they unfold naturally. Therefore, the focus of this study was not aimed at aspects of generalised applicability that would fall within the domain of quantitative research. Another limitation to this study was the absence of Tim’s perspective regarding the family drama. However, it was each participant’s privilege and right to decide whether they wanted to partake in this research study. Tim’s refusal to be a part of this research study was therefore re spected. Review or related determine Personal history and backgroundChildhood memory: [pic] In response to the news of Andrew’s drug addiction, David and Lauren both blamed themselves and tried to make sense of the situation. Both Emma and Sophia report that they also blamed David and Lauren for Andrew’s drug problem. When Katie heard about Andrew’s drug addiction, she blamed him for it, while Andrew also reported that he only had himself to blame. The first theme contains all the initial reactions experienced by the participants shortly after Andrew’s drug problem was exposed. Moreover, Andrew’s reaction to the responses from is family is also included here. Early adolescence Lauren, David, Katie, Emma and Sophia all reported experiencing shock. Both Lauren and David reported experiencing devastation, helplessness and guilt. Yet Lauren and David also felt relieved as they reported how the puzzle pieces fell into place at that moment. Emma was the only participant to report feelings of utter disbelief, and Katie was the only participant who reported that she was not surprised by the news of Andrew’s drug addiction as she had all along been suspecting that something was wrong with Andrew.Andrew reported feeling embarrassed and sad when he told his family about his drug problem. Turning point Theme Two: Life Changes Experienced due to Andrew’s Drug Addiction This theme characterises all the changes that resulted in the family from the impact of Andrew’s drug addiction. Also included in this theme are the changes that took place in Andrew’s own life as a result of his drug addiction. Emotional changes Lauren and David reported that they felt helpless, guilty and overwhelmed by Andrew’s drug addiction. Emma and Sophia reported that they felt overwhelmed by the extent of their involvement.Both Lauren and Andrew reported that they both felt utterly alone during this time. 15 Katie was the only par ticipant to report that she felt tied-down by her responsibilities toward her own family, and that she was subsequently rather uninvolved in Andrew’s problems. Andrew reported that he felt anger towards his family. Identity changes Lauren, David and Andrew reported that they thought of themselves as failures. Lauren felt that she had failed as a mother and David felt that he failed as a father. Andrew reported that he was labelled as the black sheep of the family when his drug addiction became public.David was the only participant to report that he was embarrassed by Andrew. Occupational changes Lauren reported that her occupational situation had become stressful as she repeatedly had to take time off from work as a result of Andrew’s drug addiction. She often had to attend court hearings when he had been arrested. Andrew reported that he had lost his job as a result of his drug addiction. Relationship changes Lauren, David, Katie and Andrew all reported that there was much more conflict between the family members. David and Lauren reported that communication within the family had become constrained.Emma and Sophia reported that they became much closer to the members of the Joubert family as a result of their involvement. Katie was the only participant to report that she visited her parents less because Andrew was there. Reinforcement The orientation of this study is also adequately disclosed in that, as the researcher, I clearly demarcated my personal interest in the study and expectations thereof. The nature of the study was also clearly explained. As the researcher, my engagement with the material is reflected through the hermeneutic process of data analysis, which attempts to discover meaning and to achieve understanding.Consequently, specific themes were identified that seem to underlie each participant’s unique experience regarding the topic of the study. Therefore, I attempted to approach this 26 study from a position of â€Å"not knowing† and allowed myself the privilege of seeing the world through the eyes of each participant that took part in this study. The hermeneutic process of data analysis also allowed me the opportunity to firmly ground the various interpretations, by linking each identified theme with examples from the specific interviews conducted with the participants.The validity of this study was obtained by utilising the â€Å"triangulation† strategy. The data generated in this study was obtained from multiple sources such as the literature study, the description of the family and its members, the genograms, a chronological event chart, an eco-map and semi-structured interviews. The validity of this study is further strengthened by the overall coherence reflected in the qualitative nature, postmodern ontology, constructivist epistemology, literature study, hermeneutic method of analysis and collaborative resources chosen for this study.As such, a visible thread of relevance runs th rough the different facets of this study. The study also appears â€Å"fruitful† as it provides an abundance of rich and meaningful descriptions about drug addiction as a problem-determined system. In particular, the participants that took part in this study all agreed that the ways in which I engaged them individually had made sense to them. As such, catalytic validity has been achieved. Conclusion This study allowed me as the researcher the profound privilege of bearing witness to intricate complexities of the Joubert family drama.Through the stories told by each participant, the themes that seem to underlie them, and from the collaborative sources of data, I was able to see how Andrew’s drug addiction developed within the context of his family system. The following hypotheses were made: It appears that the Joubert family has always had extremely limiting rules to which each member had to adhere. These rules inevitably resulted in the formation of redundant 28 patter ns of interaction between the family members.The limited family repertoire provided a sense of stability as it ensured the predictability of each family member. Perhaps Andrew’s birth marked the start of this family’s evolution from an â€Å"undifferentiated blob of sameness† to greater individual differentiation. When Andrew was much younger, it was easier for the family to maintain its stability or status quo by opposing the difference or the new information that Andrew tried to bring to the family system. At this time, Andrew was merely pushed toward the periphery of the family as he was labelled the black sheep and the outsider.Thus, by reframing the difference that Andrew brought to his family as deviance, the family was able to remain homeostatic and unchanged. But despite the Joubert family’s commitment to sameness, they had managed to create the context for change. Their immediate response to the challenge that Andrew’s drug addiction posed to their stability, was to form a problem-determined system whereby they all agreed through their languaging that Andrew’s drug addiction was in fact a problem. In this manner, the family tried to keep Andrew as their scapegoat by once again labelling him as the sole carrier of the problem.However, Andrew’s drug addiction was much stronger than the homeostatic tendency of the Joubert family unit, and so evolution could take place. As a result, the stable family system was pushed off its axes and relationships were altered to such an extent that greater differentiation amongst the family members was made possible. Finally, it seems appropriate to say that where there was a beginning there is now an ending and in that way the study has come full circle as it achieved that which it has set out to achieve.

Psychology Vocab Essay

Anal stage: the stage at which children advocate erotic pleasure with the elimination process Archetype: an inherited idea, based on the experiences of one’s ancestors, which shapes one’s perception of the world Altered states of consciousness: conscious level, preconscious level, and unconscious level Amnesia: a loss of memory that may occur after a blow to the head or as a result of brain damage Biofeedback: the process of learning to control bodily states with the help of machines monitoring the states to be controlled Bipolar: a disorder in which a person’s mood inappropriately alternates between feelings of mania and depression Client centered therapy: an approach developed by Carl Rogers that reflects the belief that the client and therapist are partners in therapy Conditioning: a type of learning that involves stimulus response connections in which the response is conditional to the stimulus Central nervous system: Spinal cord and the brain Classical conditioning: a learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus Collective unconscious: the part of the mind that inherited instincts, urges, and memories common to all people Consciousness: an individual’s state of awareness, including a person’s feelings, sensations, ideas, and perceptions Compulsion: an apparently irresistible urge to repeat an act or engage in ritualistic behavior such as hand washing Cross- sectional study: research method in which data is collected from groups of participants of different ages and compares so that conclusions can be drawn about differences due to age CS (Conditioned stimulus): a once neutral event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus CR (conditioned response): a response by the conditioned stimulus; it is similar to the unconditioned response, but not identical in magnitude or amount Defense mechanism: Certain specific means by which the ego unconsciously protects itself against unpleasant impulses or circumstances Dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality): a person exhibits two or more personality states, each with its own patterns of thinking and behaving Dependent variable: changes in relation to the independent variable Discrimination: the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli. 2. The unequal treatment of individuals on the basis of their race, ethnic group, age, gender, or membership in another category rather than on the basis of individual characteristics Depression: a psychological disorder characterized by extreme sadness, an inability to concentrate, and feelings of helplessness and dejection Superego: the part of the personality that is the source of conscience and contracts the socially undesirable impulses of the id Dopamine: Involved in learning, emotional, arousal, and movement Eidetic memory: the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short term exposure Extinction: in classical conditioning, the gradual disappearance of a conditional response because the reinforcement is withheld or because the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus Endocrine system: a chemical communication system using hormones, by which messages are sent through the blood stream, EEG (electroencephalograph): a machine used to record the electoral activity of large portions of the brain Extravert: an outgoing, active person who directs his or her energies and interests toward other people and things Electroshock therapy: also called (ECT), an electrical shock is sent through the brain to try to reduce symptoms of mental disturbance Ego: the part of the personality that is in touch with reality and strives to meet the demands of the id and the superego in socially acceptable ways Free association: a Freudian technique used to examine the unconscious; the patients instructed to say whatever comes into his or her mind Formal operations: the person is able to solve abstract problems Fixed ratio schedule: a pattern of reinforcement in which a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained Fixed interval schedule: a pattern of reinforcement in which a specific amount of time must elapse before a response will elicit reinforcement Functional fixedness: a mental set characterized by the inability to imagine new functions for familiar objects Genital Stage: Freud’s fifth and final psychosexual stage during which an individual’s sexual satisfaction depends as much on giving pleasure as on receiving it Hypothalamus: regulates the autonomic nervous system Hallucinations: perceptions that have no direct external cause Hypothesis: an assumption or prediction about behavior that is tested through scientific research Identity crisis: A period of inner conflict during which adolescents worry intensely about who they are Id: in psychoanalytic theory, that part of the unconscious personality that contains our needs, drives, and instincts, as well as repressed material Independent variable: experimenters change or alter so they can observe its effects Imprinting: inherited tendencies or responses that are displayed by newborn animals when they encounter new stimuli in their environment Introvert: a reserved, withdrawn person who is more preoccupied with his or her inner thoughts and feelings than in what is going on around him or her Imitation: The third way of learning Latency Stage: the fourth stage of Freud’s psychosexual development at which sexual desires are pushed into the background and the child becomes involved in exploring the world and learning new skills Long term memory: the storage of information over extended periods of time Longitudinal study: research method in which data is collected about a group of participants over a number of years to assess how certain characteristics change or remain the same during development Lithium carbonate: a chemical used to counteract mood swings of bipolar disorder Maturation: the internally programmed growth of a child Meditation: the focusing of attention to clear one’s mind and produce relaxation Modeling: the process of learning behavior through observation and imitation of others Mnemonic devices: techniques of memorizing information by forming vivid associations or images, which facilitate recall and decrease forgetting Negative reinforcement: increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs Neurosis: One of the most commonly used diagnostic distinctions Oral Stage: Freud’s first stage of psychosexual development, in which infant’s associate erotic pleasure with the mouth Object permanence: Child’s realization that an object exists even when he or she cannot see or touch it Operant conditioning: a form of learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in the likelihood that similar actions will occur again Obsession: a recurring thought or image that seems to be beyond control OCD (obsessive compulsive disorder): an anxiety disorder consisting of obsessions and compulsions Oedipus complex: seems more like a literary conceit that a thesis worthy of a scientifically minded psychologist Psychosexual stages: 1. Oral stage, 2.anal stage, 3.phallic stage, 4.latancy stage, 5.ganital stage Psychosocial stages: 1. Trust vs. mistrust, 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt, 3.initiative vs. guilt, 4. Industry vs. inferiority, 5. Identity vs. role confusion, 6. Intimacy vs. isolation, 7. Generativity vs. stagnation, 8. Ego integrity vs. Despair Pre-operational stage: emerges when the child begins to use mental images symbols to understand things Pituitary gland: â€Å"master gland† Psychosis: One of the most commonly used diagnostic distinctions Projective test: an unstructured test of personality in which a person is asked to respond freely, giving his or her own interpretation of various ambiguous stimuli Phallic stage: Freud’s third psychosexual stage, children associate sexual pleasure with their genitals Psychology: the scientific, systematic study of behaviors and mental processes Psychiatry: a branch of medicine that deals with mental, emotional, or behavioral disorders Psychotherapy: a general term for the application of psychological principles and techniques for any treatment used by therapists to help troubled individuals overcome their problems and disorders Positive reinforce: a stimulus that increases the likelihood that a response will occur again Psychoanalysis: a form of therapy aimed at making patients aware of their unconscious motives so that they can gain control over their behavior and free themselves of self-defeating patterns Reli ability: the ability of a test to give the same results under similar conditions REM sleep: a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, a high level of brain activity, a deep relaxation of the muscles, and dreaming Reinforcement schedule: an important factor in operant conditioning Random sample: One way to avoid a nonrepresentative sample Rorschach inkblot cards: 10 cards with inkblot designs and a system for interpreting responses Self –actualization: the humanist term for realizing one’s unique potential Shaping: technique of operant conditioning in which the desired behavior is â€Å"molded† by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward Short term memory: memory that is limited in capacity to about seven items and in duration by the subject active rehearsal Spontaneous recovery: the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after some time has passed Selective attention: Focusing on only one detail of many Schizophrenia: a group of severe psychotic disorders characterized by confused and disconnected thoughts, emotions, behavior, and perceptions Separation anxiety: whenever the child is suddenly separated from the mother Superego: the part of the personality that is the source of conscience and contracts the socially undesirable impulses of the id Sensorimotor: the infant uses schemas that primarily involve his body and sensations Surrogate mothers: substitute mothers TAT (Thematic Apperception Test): This test consists of a series of pictures Thalamus: major relay station of the brain Unconscious: the part of the mind that holds mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories of which we are unaware but that strongly influences conscious behaviors UCR (Unconditioned response): an organism, automatic or natural reaction to a stimulus UCS (unconditioned stimulus): an event that elicits a certain predictable response without previous training Variable- ratio schedule: a pattern of reinforcement in which a specific amount of time must elapse before a response will elicit reinforcement Variable- interval schedule: a pattern of reinforcement in which changing amounts of time must elapse before a response will obtain reinforcement Validity: the ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure Theorists Carl Jung: (1875-1961) believed that people try to develop their potential as well as handle their instinctual urges. He distinguished between personal unconscious and the collective unconscious Alfred Adler: (1870-1937) believed that the driving force in people’s lives is a desire to overcome their feelings of inferiority Sigmund Freud: (1856-1939) believed that our conscious experiences are only the tip of the iceberg, that beneath the surface are primitive biological urges that are in conflict with the requirements of society and morality Erick Erickson: (1902-1994) believed that the need for social approval is just as important as a child’s sexual and aggressive urges Abraham Maslow: (1908-1970) tried to base his theory of personality on studies of healthy, creative, self actualizing people who fully utilize their talents and potential rather than on studies of disturbed individuals Carl Rogers: (1902-1987) believed that many people suffer from a conflict between wh at they value in themselves and what they believe that other people value in them John B. Watson 🙠 1878-1958) psychology should concern itself only with the observable facts of behavior. Said that all behavior is the result of conditioning and occurs because the appropriate stimulus is present in the environment Ivan Pavlov: (1849 -1936) charted another new course for psychological investigation. Demonstrated that a neutral stimulus can cause a formerly unrelated response B.F. Skinner 🙠 1904-1990) introduced the concept of reinforcement. Attempted to show how his laboratory techniques might be applied to society as a whole Albert Bandura: people direct their own behavior by their choice of models. Harry Harlow: (1905- 1981) studied the relationship between mother and child in a species closer to humans, the rhesus monkeys Galen: Identified four personality characteristics called melancholic, sanguine, choleric, and phlegmatic Alfred Binet: Karen Horney: (1885-1952) stressed the importance of basic anxiety. She believes that if a child is raised in an atmosphere of love and security, that child could avoid Freud’s psychosexual parent child conflict b Lawrence Kohlberg: His studies show how important being able to see other people’s points of view is to social development in general and to moral development of moral reasoning Jean Piaget: Discovered that knowledge builds as children grow. Children develop logic and think differently at different ages Lorenz Konrad: (1903- 1989) became a pioneer in the field of animal learning. He discovered that baby geese become attached to their mothers in a sudden, virtually permanent learning process called imprinting Stanley Milgram: conducted the most famous investigation of obedience in 1963. Wanted to determine whether participants would administer painful shocks to others merely because an authority figure had instructed them to do so James Marcia: main contribution is in clarifying the sources and nature of the adolescent identity crisis Philip Zimbardo: made the Zimbardo experiment Solomon Asch: designed what has become a classic experiment to test conformity to pressure from one’s peers Hermann Rorschach: made the inkblot test   Wilhelm Wundt: he proposed that psychological experience is composed of compounds, much like the ones found in chemistry Phillipe Pinel: Father of scientific psychiatry   Dorothea Dix: Chief spokesperson for reform